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The Leyden Jar
In 1745, the so-called Leyden Jar (or Leyden Bottle) was invented by Ewald Jürgen von Kleist (1700-1748). Kleist searched for a way to store electric energy and had the idea to fill it into a bottle! The bottle contained water or mercury and was placed onto a metal surface with ground connection. No wonder: the device worked, but not because
of the fact that electricity could be filled into bottles.One year after Kleist, the physicist Cunnaeus in Leyden/the Netherlands independently invented this bottle again. Thus the term Leyden Jar became more familiar, although in Germany, this device sometimes also was called Kleist's bottle.
An intense research work began to find out which liquid is the most suitable. A few years later, researchers had learned that water is not necessary, but a metal hull inside and outside the jar was sufficient for storing electrostatic energy. Thus the first capacitors were born.
Early Leyden jars Early jars
An advanced electrostatic battery in 1795
Frequently, several jars were connected in order to multiply the charge. Experimenting with this type of capacitors started to become pretty dangerous. In 1783, while trying to charge a battery during a thunderstorm, Prof. Richmann was killed by unintendedly getting too close to a conductor with his head. He is the first known victim of high voltage experiments in the history of physics. Benjamin Franklin had a good deal of luck not to win this honour when performing his kite experiments.
St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783. Prof. Richman and his assistant being struck by lightning while charging capacitors. The assistant escaped almost unharmed, whereas Richman was dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that "he only had a small hole in his forehead, a burnt left shoe and
a blue spot at his foot. [...] the brain being ok, the front part
of the lung sane, but the rear being brown and black of blood." The conclusion was that the electric discharge had taken its way through Richmann's body. The scientific community was shocked.
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LA NAISSANCE DE L'ELECTROMAGNETISME
Vers les années
1820, Faraday se concentre sur l'étude du magnétisme. Il est en outre, le premier à montrer une corrélation entre les phénomènes électriques et les phénomènes magnétiques, entraînant ainsi la naissance d'une discipline nouvelle : l'électromagnétisme. Tout commence par l'étude de l'expérience célèbre menée par le physicien danois Christian Oersted. Un courant électrique qui traverse un fil longiligne fait dévier l'aiguille d'une boussole placée à proximité de ce fil. Ce qui fascine Faraday c'est que pour la première fois, la force qui apparaît n'est pas une force qui agit selon l'axe qui joint le fil et la boussolle (comme ça peut être le cas avec la force de gravitation ou avec la force electrostatique). La boussole est déviée perpendiculairement au fil. La forcve dont créee agit en cercles autour du fil. Faraday montre que la circulation d'un courant provoque un effet magnétique. Il invente dans la foulée le moteur électrique. Il lui faudra peu de temps pour se rendre compte que l'inverse est valable aussi : un effet magnétique produit un courant électrique. C'est ainsi que Faraday met au point la première dynamo en faisant tourner un aimant autour d'un fil. Faraday met par la suite au point un anneau qui est l'ancêtre du transformateur actuel. C'est aussi à ce moment qu'il comprend pourquoi l'électromagnétisme a été ignoré par les plus grands savants qui exerçaient dans le domaine de l'électricité. Ce n'est pas la circulation continue d'un courant dans le premier anneau qui peut faire apparaître un courant dans le deuxième, mais une variation de l'intensité de ce courant. Le phénomène d'induction est enfin compris et exploité et la notion de flux qui sera développé
e plus tard est enfin mise en évidence. Moteur électrique, dynamo et alternateurs, transformateurs... autant d'inventions encore utilisées aujourd'hui et qu'on doit à Michaël Faraday. Et c'est en 1840 que Faraday fait ses dernières découvertes majeures en montrant le lien entre la lumière et le magnétisme. Il sera le premier à montrer que la lumière polarisée (dont les vibrations sont toutes dirigées vers la même diraction) ne change pas de polarisation en traversant le verre. Par contre, la présence d'un aimant à proximité du verre provoque un changement de direction des vibrations. C'est le phénomène de diamagnétisme. Ainsi, d'autres substances que le fer ou l'acier ont des propriétés magnétiques.
Dispositif utilisé par Faraday pour mettre en évidence le phénomène d'induction : le déplacement d'un conducteur traversé par un courant provoque l'apparition d'un courant dans un autre conducteur placé à proximité
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A Baroque Gas Discharging Lamp
In
1730 scientific research has discovered the principles of electric conduction. An inspiriation for electric research came from an area which at the first glance had absoluteley nothing to contribute: the mercury barometric device invented by Evangelista Torricelli. If the mercury-filled tube was shaken and the evacuated portion
of the tube was observed in the dark, a light emission could be seen. William Hauksbee, both inventive and inquisitive, designed a rotor to rub a small disk of amber in a vacuum chamber. When the chamber contained some mercury vapour, it lit up! This was the first mercury gas discharge lamp! The engravings show surprising similarities to today's lightning spheres.
Hauksbee's amber rotor
Hauksbee's setup to demonstrate light effects caused by static electricity.
The Beer Glass Generator
Glass proved to be an ideal material for an electrostatic generator. It was cheaper than sulphur and could easily be shaped to disks or cylinders. An ordinary beer glass turned out to be a good isolating rotor in Winkler's electrostatic machine.
An electrostatic machine invented by Johann Heinrich Winkler (1703-1770)
Machines like these were not only made for scientific research, but a preferred toy for amusement. In the 18th century, everybody wanted to experience the electric shock. Experiments like the "electric kiss" were a salon pastime. Although the French Abbé Nollet demonstrated in 1745 that little animals like birds and fish were killed instantaneuosly by the discharge of a Leyden jar, nobody was aware
of the latent dangers of this type of experiments.
The electric kiss provided a very special thrill
Soon after the effects of electrostatic discharge were found, researchers and charlatans started to cure diseases with electric shocks. Here we find parallels to the "Mesmerists" who claimed to use magnetic powers for therapy.
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The Prince of Wales visited the underground reservoir illuminations while opening the Metropolitan 1865.
www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-london-20050626
The popularity
of the subterranean rail network linking London led to the expansion to the suburbs in the 19th Century.
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Tracteurs et Motoculteurs d'Antan
Yablochkov candle with part
of the bulb removed to show the two parallel carbon rods separated slightly from each other by a layer of plaster of Paris.
A Yablochkov candle consists of a sandwich of two long carbon blocks, approximately 6 by 12 millimetres in cross-section, separated by a block of inert material such as plaster of paris or kaolin. There is a small piece of fuse wire or carbon paste linking the two carbon blocks at the top end. The assembly is mounted vertically into a suitable insulated holder.
On application of the electric supply, the fuse wire 'blows' and strikes the arc. The arc then continues to burn, gradually consuming the carbon electrodes (and the intervening plaster) as it does so. The first candles were powered by a Gramme machine.
On disconnecting the supply, the arc extinguishes. It cannot be restarted, as there is now no fuse wire between the electrodes. Once switched off or consumed, the candle must be replaced. Electrodes last about two hours.
The advantage of the design over other carbon arc designs is that it removes the need for a mechanical regulator to maintain the appropriate distance between the carbon blocks to sustain the arc.
It was first demonstrated as street and theatre illumination during the Paris Exhibition of 1878, notably on the Avenue de l'Opéra. The candles were enclosed in globes of enamelled glass, with four to twelve candles in each connected in series.
Yablochkov candle without bulb. Illustration from La Nature (
1877).
Yablochkov candles illuminating Avenue de l'Opéra in Paris under the Exposition Universelle (1878).
Yablochkov candles in Music hall at Place du Château d'Eau in Paris, c. 1880
Yablochkov candles installed at Victoria Embankment in London, December
1878
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Brush Electric Company's central power plant dynamos powered arc lamps for public lighting in New York. Beginning operation in December 1880 at 133 West Twenty-Fifth Street, it powered a 2-mile (3.2 km) long circuit.
The California Electric Company (now PG&E) in San Francisco in 1879 used two direct current generators from Charles Brush's company to supply multiple customers with power for their arc lamps. This San Francisco system was the first case of a utility selling electricity from a central plant to multiple customers via transmission lines.[9] CEC soon opened a second plant with 4 additional generators. Service charges for light from sundown to midnight was $10 per lamp per week.
In December 1880, Brush Electric Company set up a central station to supply a 2-mile (3.2 km) length of
Broadway with arc lighting. By the end of 1881, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montreal, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cleveland and other cities had Brush arc lamp systems, producing public light well into the 20th century.[11] By 1893 there were 1500 arc lamps illuminating New York streets.
The first electricity system supplying incandescent lights was built by Edison Electric Illuminating Company in lower Manhattan eventually serving one square mile with 6 "jumbo dynamos" housed at Pearl Street Station. When service began in September 1882, there were 85 customers with 400 light bulbs. Each dynamo produced 100 kW- enough for 1200 incandescent lights, and transmission was at 110 V via underground conduits. The system cost $300,000 to build with installation
of the 100,000 feet (30,000 m) of underground conduits one of the most expensive parts of the project. Operating expenses exceeded income in the first two years and fire destroyed the plant in 1890. Edison's lights were cheaper, provided light that was warmer and operated at much lower voltages than the arc lamps. Further, Edison had a three wire system so that either 110 V or 220 V could be supplied to power some motors.
Berlin, 1884. With double the brilliance of gaslight, arc lamps were in high demand for stores and public areas. Arc lighting circuits used up to thousands of volts with arc lamps connected in series.
Streetcars created enormous demand for early electricity. This Siemens Tram from 1884 required 500 V direct current, which was typical.
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Faraday’s Early Achievement: the Dynamo
In 1831, scientist Michael Faraday created the electric dynamo, an early form
of the power generator. Faraday’s dynamo ushered in a new era of electricity.
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electro-magneto generator, with permanent magnets powering an arc light, was invented in
1850
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A French military searchlight projector designed by Colonel Mangin, circa 1880. Note the
hand-cranked generator, battery box, and heliograph (folding mirror) for signaling
Three sets of early pattern searchlights were later used on the British march to Magdala, in the Abyssinian war of 1868. They cost the considerable sum of three hundred and fifty pounds each, and cast their beams a mile and a half away.
Here we have a nineteenth-century horse drawn fire wagon with a searchlight to illuminate the rising heights of buildings.
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Carbon Arc searchlights were mounted on steam locomotives in the 1880's
A
searchlight on a river boat pushing
coal barges on the Mississippi around
1871
A
carbon arc searchlight beaming across Paris from Mt. Valerien in
1870
The Arc Lamp in Arc Lights of Searchlights
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L'incisione evidenzia la reversibilità delle macchine di Gramme, utilizzabili sia come dinamo che come motori elettrici
Macchina dinamo-elettrica di Gramme, 1871 (collezione De Rubeis).
Il 17 luglio
1871 fu presentata dal prof. Jamin, all'Accademia delle Scienze di Parigi, una macchina costruita dal belga Zénobe Gramme che altro non era se non una
copia della macchinetta o dinamo elettromagnetica realizzata da Antonio Pacinotti nel 1860. Ciò non sminuisce la figura del Gramme, il cui vero merito sta nell’aver saputo costruire macchine dinamoelettriche su ampia scala, adatte ad un uso industriale, mentre le macchine di Pacinotti rimanevano strumenti da laboratorio.
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